Blog 4: India: Potential Energy Resources and Potential Energy Problems, Now and in the Future

India has the 4^th largest coal reserves in the world (India has 10% of the world's total coal) and is the 3^rd largest producer of coal in the world. Coal is abundant, cheaply attained, and cheaply used. Also, coal deposits are found in a host of different states throughout, not just a handful. However, from our group projects, I've learned that Chattisgarh outpaces most states. In any regard, India has a lot of coal—enough to last them another 200 years at current production (Renewable Energy and Efficiency Status Report).

However, India's population is rapidly increasing. The REES Report estimates a needed 8 to 10% increase in energy production will be necessary to provide adequate energy to everyone for a lifetime. However, with increased coal burning for electricity generation, greenhouse gases emissions will increase. Currently, India rates as the 6^th largest GHG emitter, India is the country with the second fastest rate of GHG emission increase in the world.

Specifically, coal combustion produces carbon dioxide. Coal combustion creates other pollutants such as fly ash, but carbon dioxide is the leading greenhouse gas produced from coal combustion. Carbon dioxide acts a greenhouse gas by trapping radiated heat off the Earth's surface by changing the wave length of this radiated heat. The wavelength-changed heat becomes stuck in the atmosphere, and the heat is sent back to the Earth where global atmospheric temperature increases, causing all sorts of ecological damage.

Another interesting factor to consider in India's ever increasing coal consumption and energy production is the difference between energy consumption rates between developed and developing countries. The REES Report indicates that in developing countries, 2.2 tons of coal/person is needed. However, developing countries have shown to require much more. In the US, 32 times more coal is needed for each person. As India rapidly increases its economic growth rate and development and progresses to become a more developed country, more luxury consumption per person will compound the already increased need for more coal to provide power with the increasing number of people living in India. Though abundant and cheap, coal is still a limited natural resource dependent on supply to determine price and availability. With 200 years of coal supply to go with current coal production, we can deduce from expected increase in population and increase in consumption per person that the actual amount of time coal reserves will last India will be much smaller than 200 years, thus necessitating an increased use in natural, renewable sources (Renewable Energy and Efficiency Status Report).

Of all the types of renewable resources from which to generate energy, I favor wind energy, solar energy, and biomass waste recycling. These three alternate energy production technologies seem to be more curtailed to India's climate, circumstance, and ability. Wind energy is promising in India because of its 'localized nature', India's climate, and India's geographical size. Wind energy sites properly researched and constructed could serve as a great way to create sustainable, cheap, low impact energy for a rural village. Necessary processes required before this happens are 1) the appropriate research 2) expansion of the grid system to include this input of energy and to reach the villages and 3) national cooperation with states and villages to make this happen (Madsen and Natrajan).

Solar energy has the same sort of appeal as a localized, low impact energy source. However, solar energy requires much more land use decisions as the panels require a lot of space. Also, solar panels are little more costly and payback less than wind energy. Biomass is my last recommendation. It almost seems too ideal to expect to recycle waste to energy. It would clean India up, increase jobs, and provide a sustainable alternative to create energy on larger scale—on an urban scale, for example (MacFarlane).

It is only though diversification and decentralization of energy sources and emphasis on renewable energy that GHG can be reduced and energy production can occur at an equal rate of population increase.

In The Economist, “Power to the People: Technology and Development” discusses energy production in the developing world. The author is big proponent of micro-grid technology and biomass fuel for India's villages. He gives the example of Husk Power Systems which is an Indian firm for their idea of using rice husk for powering generators for entire villages. The rice husk have no other use and would be left to decompose. The generators connect to wires that apparently are easily strung via bamboo poles to house to house and require very little maintenance. The author writes that Husk makes money by charging a door to door initial service fee and then receives a hefty government subsidy. Because maintenance and operating cost are virtually free, Husk usually sees profits within six months of construction, making it pretty lucrative.

This type of approach is exactly what India needs. This idea can be applied to wind and solar energy also. The localized, diversified approach of using sustainable energy production methods would rapidly be able to increase energy production and available to rural India, bypassing expensive grid creation. Energy is necessary for survival, sanitation, and will increase economic, social, and health conditions throughout India.

Resources:

Macfarlane, Allison. “Energy: Issues in the 21^st Century.” Elements. June 2007

Madsen and Natarajan. “Challenges and prospects for wind energy to attain 20% grid penetration by 2020 in India”. Current Science. Vol 101, No 1. July 2011.

“Power to the people: Technology and development: A growing number of initiatives are promoting bottom-up ways to deliver energy to the world’s poor.” The Economist. Printed September 2^nd 2010. Accessed online September 20^th, 2011 from http://www.economist.com/node/16909923

ICLEI South Asia. “Reneable Energy and Efficiency Status in India”. May 2007

Blog 3: Food and Nutrion in India: History and Problems

India has done something no other country to my knowledge has done:  they have had a population growth rate that has surpassed the amount of food production rate, survived, and then increased their food production to accomodate their growing population better.  Madhura Swaminathan in "Population and Food Security" explains somewhat proudly that a combination of increased imports, improved irrigation, and adoption of wheat 'fine-tuned' to India combined to spark the Green Revolution that saved India from massive food shortages and potential deaths. 

In Madhura Swaminathan's exert from From Green to Evergreen Revolution, Swaminathan depicts four separate phases describing the process of the Green Revolution.  In phase 1, Nehru emphaised the importance of infrastructure development and scientific research in the face of a growing population that began to outstrip food production.  Phase 2 saw contiued governmental support of developing infrastructure, especially irrigation.  Also, education and governmental encourgagement (in the form of the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) contributed to a gradual public policy concerned with increasing food production.  Swaminathan claims that food production outstripped population growth during phase 2 due to governmental support and the subsequent 'self-confidence' of India's farmers. 

During phase 3, saw somewhat of an expansion in types of agriculture.  Oilseeds and increased milk production are highlights of the increased agriculutural efforts.  Further, Swaminathan says governmental support and attention became distracted with environmental concerns such as river pollution and watershed areas; infrastructural development suffered from this diversion of attention.  Finally, Swaminathan uses the word 'fatigue' to describe the policies regarding infrastucture, technology, and produciton in phase 4 (2001-present).  In phase 4, an agriculture decline has occured in simultation with other issues including increasing international prices of food and land use disagreements.  Finally, long term environmental issues are to show effects.  Global warming is causing flooding and pollution issues are taking a toll.

Swaminathan advocates an Evergreen Revolution, defined as a second agricultural revolution with care for the environment and surrounding ecology.  Main ideas he offers to create this revolution is increased technology to insure efficiency in land, water and labor use.  Second, he suggests small farms over industrial farms if the small farmer can take a risk.  Increased use of village-based decision making and synergy between governments can aid in both of these factors taking hold.   

Aside from gross food production, nutrional security is an important goal of the second agricultural revolution.  Nutrional security, according to Swaminathan, is access to balanced diet, general sanitation, and hygene.  Swaminathan finds that high risk malnutrition cases occur frequently in women and children and often in Orissa, Jharkland, and Bihar.

However, other types of malnutrion occur than undernourishment in rural type areas.  Prakash Shetty describes increasing obesity cases in rapidly urbanizing areas in India.   Urbanization brings a host of potential communicable diseases, but Shetty discusses Noncommunicable diseases in urbanized area such as cardiovascular disease.  Shetty attributes a more sedementary lifestyle and increased fatty diet as main causes as the rise in NCD's in urbanized India.  Interestngly, Shetty specifically mentions consumption of milk as a source of increased fat intake of India.

I found it intersting to consider Gucharan Das's view of urbanization and industrializaton as positive strides toward a progressive economy in a global market with reference to a new host of problems associated with urbanization.  I had considered sanitation issues, especially in slums, as a 'urbanization' problem before.  But, I had really only thought about NCD's in Western, industrialized country.  I think it would be interesting to see the income levels of urban Indians with cardiovascular diesease in comparison to the average income of India's population.  I suspect NCD's to be a richer, urban problem compared to a communicable disease. 

Gucharan Das stated in India Unbound that India's lag in deveopment compared to ohter Asian tigers stems from the goverment's failure to invest in education and health of its public.  Both these factors are closely correlated to economic and well-being of its citizens.  Edward Luce's In Spite of the Gods echoes that sentiment.  He writes that India spends less on health care per GDP than almost anyother country.  Luce contiues that the lack of health care spending compounds in difficulty with inequal distribution of food subsidies and food.  Luce expresses frustration at the fact that India, in 2003, stored mountains of grain high enough to provide each family living below poverty with a ton of rice/wheat.  He suggests that citizens use their democratic powers to overcome the wasteful ways of the bureacracies. 

To connect Swimanathan's idea of an Evergreen Revolution with the diversity of nutrional problems India faces, I suggest that the sustainablity flavor of the second agriculture revolution include social sustainablity.  Social sustainability could be defined as disese reduction associated with food distribution inequalities and malnutrion.  Obviouisly, this is a loose and idealistic addition, but its necessary so that India doesn't continue to have a large portion of their generation grow with effects of malnourishment.

Blog 2: Dangerous Nitrogen: Health effects and ecological effects

Nitrogen is present everywhere in Earth Systems.  The atmosphere is comprised of 78% N2; Nitrates, Nitrites, and Ammonium is present in the soil; plants require nitrogen intake to grow, thus making nitrogen necessary for the health of entire ecosystems.  However, despite Nitrogen's abundance in Earth Systems, too much or too little Nitrogen can cause health effects to humans and can alter ecosystems.

In Gupta et al's "Health issues  related to N pollution in water and air," nitrates are ranked in order of pervasiveness of entry into human bodies as 1) drinking water 2) food and 3) air.  Gupta et al list several sources where nitrates can enter into ground water, which via wells translates to drinking water.  Sewage leakage, industrial pollution, and excessive nitrogen-heavy chemical fertilizers are the most prominent avenues for nitrates to enter into drinking water. 

One health effect that consumption of nitrates in drinking water has is methemoglobinemia.  Gupta explains that the nitrates in the water oxidizes the iron in haemoglobin.  This causes blue baby syndrome, resulting from the lack of oxygen after the iron in the hemoglobin is oxidized. 

Gupta et al further point that Nitrates act a "procarcinogen", meaning that nitrates can react with other chemicals to create carcinogens.  Patients with cancer see an acceleration in cancer cell growth when they consume high levels of nitrate in their water. 

Nitrates can enter the body via food in several different ways.  Chemical fertilizers heavy in nitrates can leave the nitrate residue on the plants we eat.  Gupta et al discuss how leafy vegetables tend to contrain high levels of nitrates resulting from over expression of a gene that produces nitrates in the plant.  This nitrate accumulation in the plants can be compounded when eaten by animals that humans would consume, ie cattle. 

Nitrous oxide is the air also, resulting from combustion of gasoline in  the presence of the Nitrogen content in the air.   Industrial processes can also pollute the air with too much nitrous oxide.  Over exposure of nitrous oxide can cause tissue damage and swelling in the throat.  Other respitory problems include pulmany oedema and asthman.  Too little nitrous oxide in the atmosphere, however, cause respitory irritation and irritation in the eyes. 

Gupta et al summarizes several other problems associated with consumption of high concentrations of nitrates.  These include weakness in the infant, respitory infections, hypertenstion, gastrointesnal issues including diarrhea, still births, low birth weights, diabetes, birth sdefects, and thyroid problems.

Nitrates can other effects too, including ecosytem damage.   Aber et. al. discuss nitrates and their effect on forests in "Nitrogen Saturation in Northern Forests Ecosystems:  excess nitrogen from fossil fuel combustion many stress biosphere".  Some main points Aber et. al. touch on are the effects of nitrous oxide in the air and the different negative effects that those gases create.  One such negative effect is acid rain.  The nitrous oxide has a great oxidizing potential and can easily react with water to form nitric acid.  This acid rain has obvious effects:  flora and fauna don't respond well to acid falling from the sky. 

But, the acid rain has slightly less obvious effects.  It can decrease the pH levels in rivers and lakes, creating an abiotic range outside that of the occupants of the water body.  Further, nitrogen saturation can occur.  Aber defines nitrogen saturation as amount of ammoniuma and nitrate concentration in excess of total plant demand.  Aber finds that when nitrogen saturation is reached in a forest, some nitrogen is taken up though the plant and the plant itself becomes 'nitrogen saturated'.  However, the majority of excess nirogen is leached out of the soil and runs off into a nearby stream.

When excessive nitrogen runs off into a stream, eutrophication occurs.  Eutrophication is the process whereby algae seizes at the oppurtunity to ingest larger than normal quantities of nitrogen and/or phosphorous.  The algae population in the water body grows untill either the quantities of nitrogen are used or seasonal changes reduces the population, or both.  In either case, larger than normal amounts of algae die and sink to the bottom where bacteria, etc decompose them.  When this happens, large amounts of dissolved oxygen are consumed and the water body becomes a "dead zone".  In summary, nitrogen leaching into the water ways creates areas in water bodies without oxygen, prohibiting an ecosystem to live.

In summary, despite the importance of nitrogen to create and sustain biotic life and its abundance in nature, too much nitrogen intake can cause imbalances in ecosystems and the human body that result in health issues and ecosystem problems.

Blog 1: Poverty and the Environment: Arsenic

This past, introductory week we've discussed poverty and the connection with environmental issues.  One example of an enivornmental issue that particularly affects the poor is aresenic poisoning in groundwater. 

Arsenic is comes from rocks that have a silty and clay based.  Arsenic is formed as hydrous ferric oxides, which found with these sediments.  (Dissanayake et. al.2010).  Bacteria reduce the HFO and releases arsenic in an absorbed state. 

In two readings we've read this week, arsenic posioning in ground water was discussed.  Arsenic is naturally formed in the Himalaya and is present in groundwater.  Unfortunately, many people drill into the groundwater to get their water.  In Dissanayake et. al's article, they discuss the the negative health affects of arasenic poisoning.  Dissanyake et.al describe arsenic poisoning resulting in skin disorders.  Arsenic poisoning can occur as a result of water consumption, eating crops drenched with aresenic laden water, and walking in arsenic water.  Bowden's carcinoma is a result of arsenic poisoning.  Also, the act of farming rice--not just eating it--requires walking through the potentially poisoned waters.

Unfortunately, poisoning occurs most often in the impovershed.  Unfortuanely they drill into the contaminated groundwater and do not have the resources to filter their water.  They discover their well is contaminated only after symptoms are seen in the population.  Also, they might farm rice to produce and income or as a means of survival. Yet still, their efforts to survive are met with potential risk, putting them out of work and creating a poverty trap.

Dissanayake et. al. lay out a description of groups most likely to be vulnerable to aresnic poisoning:  the highly populated, children and pregnant women, consumers of food grown in contaminated areas, areas with poorly implemnted pollution control laws, poorly educated, and the impovershed who lack health care (Dissanayake et. al.2010). 

They also explain several environmental situations more conducive to aresnic contamination in groundwater.  In "delataic plains and inland basins" aresenic groundwater is more prevalent (Dissanayake et. al.2010).  Groundwater movement that is very slow allows a greater chance of contaminated water to be drawn. 


Dr. Mazumder, associated with the WHO, gave a talk in Calcutta in 2000 about symptoms and treatment of arsenic poisioning.  He writes that chroinc arsenic poisoning causes damage that cannot be fixed.  He says, "Despite the magnitude of this potentially fatal toxicity, there is no
effective therapy for this disease; patients once affected may not recover even after remediation
of the As contaminated water" (Mazumder 200).  This means that prevention and education are more important than trying to figure out how to treat poisoning.  Efforts, time, and money should be dedicated to helping those who cannot protect themselves avoid poisoing before they are contaminated.

 Mazumder describes how Chelation therapy has been worked with, but it has not been met with lots of success.  Chelation theraby is the ingestion of an agent that reacts with the metal ion to form an insoluble ring.  This ring would be passed rather than digested and spread to the rest of the body.  Mazumder also explains other supportive therapies that can be undertaken.  For example, a high portein diet might help reduce the effects of arsenic poisoing.  however, a high protein diet, not to mention chelation therapy is probably out of the price range of the impovershed. 

He concldudes that preventive mesures are more effective at fixing the problem of arsenic poisoning than treatment.  Atanu Sarkar echoes this argument in his chapter entitled "Sustainable solution to Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater:  The Fanga-Meghna-Bramaputra Basin".  Sarkar describes a few current "mitigation strategies" to ridding arsenic poisoning from the poor.  Arsenic filters is a common, cheap solution.  However, it is not a permanent fix.  The filters are required to be fixed and updated, sometimes requiring resources that the poor lack.  A more costly, yet more permanent solution is river planning and diversion.  Obviously, the poort themselves could not afford this, but a NGO might help an entire village with a genorous donation.  (Sarkar, Water, Agriculture, and Sustainable Well-Being).  Deeper wells is a less costly idea.  Sarkar also describes "Projectwell" shows that this is a very 'doable' idea.  Costing about $1.6/person, dug wells could provide a more permanent solution (Sarkar).  An idea that I personally support is rainwater harvesting.  This is the water colleciton solution seen in Bermuda.  It requires the construciton of better roofs, which would have some cost initially.  Sarkar reports several schools have already made this investment.

In this way, we can see how the poor have a higer disadvantage than the rich in health and environmental issues.  The two articles assigned (Sarkar and Dissanayake et. al.) discussed how the poor are more directly/permanently affected and made some suggestions to break the poverty trap.  Dr. Mazumder gave a speech for the WHO that described his research in treatment options for chronic arsenic poisoning and found that preventative measures are better executed than treatment options.

Masumder, Guha.  Diagnosis and treatment of chronic arsenic poisoning.  June 2000. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/arsenicun4.pdf